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Manufacturing is one of the most important applica¬tion area for automation technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing. The examples of automated systems used in manufacturing are described below.
Fixed automation, sometimes called «hard automa¬tion» refers to automated machines in which the equip¬ment configuration allows fixed sequence of processing operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make only certain processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation needs high initial in¬vestments and high production rates. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found in the automobile industry, automatic assem¬bly machines and certain chemical processes.
Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new product the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover take a period of non-productive time. Pro¬duction rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for product specialization. A numerical-control machine-tool is a good example of programmable automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each differ¬ent product style and the machine-tool is controlled by the computer program.
Flexible automation is a kind of programmable au¬tomation. Programmable automation requires time to re-program and change over the production equipment for each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equip¬ment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done at a computer terminal without using the pro¬duction equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be produced one right after another.
Exercise 1. General understanding:
1. What is the most important application of automa¬tion?
2. What are the types of automation used in manu¬facturing?
3. What is fixed automation?
4. What are the limitations of hard automation?
5. What is the best example of programmable auto¬mation?
6. What are the limitations of programmable automa¬tion?
7. What are the advantages of flexible automation?
8. Is it possible to produce different products one af¬ter another using automation technology?
Exercise 2. Find equivalents in English in the text:
1. сфера применения
2. фиксированная последовательность операций
3. автоматические сборочные машины
4. определенные химические процессы
5. станок с числовым программным управлением
6. потерянное производственное время
7. разнообразная продукция
Exercise 3. Explain in English what does the following mean:
1. automation technology
2. fixed automation
3. assembly machines
4. non-productive time
5. programmable automation
6. computer terminal
7. numerical-control machine-tool
Criminal procedure, also called the criminal process or the criminal justice system, is the mechanism thought which crimes are investigated, the guilt of criminals adjudicated, and punishment imposed. It includes the police, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and courts, the practices and procedures observed by them, and legal rules that govern them. In the criminal process an individual is pitted against the government, with all of its resources and authority, and only through the criminal process can the state’s most serious sanctions – imprisonment or even death – be applied.
Criminal law defines what conduct is criminal and prescribes the punishment for criminal conduct. Criminal procedure makes the criminal law work; the sanctions defined by criminal law are only effective because the criminal process can bring the sanctions to bear on individuals who violate the law. At the same time, criminal procedure aims to make sure that criminal sanctions are applied only to those who are guilty, and only through procedures that are recognized as fair. One goal of the criminal process is to punish the guilty, but other goals are to protect the innocent and to ensure that even the guilty are protected from abuse by the government.
Although we talk about “the” criminal process, different systems are in place in each state and in the federal courts.
It is summer. Mother duck has got six eggs. Five eggs break and five yellow ducklings come out. But the sixth egg doesn’t break. "Oh dear! This egg is very big," says mother duck. Later, the sixth egg breaks. A big grey duckling comes out. "Oh no! This duckling is ugly!" shouts mother duck. "Come on, ducklings. Let’s go and visit the hen," says mother duck. She looks at the ugly duckling and she says, "Walk behind your brothers and sisters. I don’t want anybody to see you. You’re ugly!" The ugly duckling is sad. The hen sees the ducklings. She sees the ugly duckling too. The hen laughs. "Look! That duckling is silly!" says the hen. "He has got short legs. He’s grey. His beak is silly. He’s an ugly duckling!" Everybody laughs. The ugly duckling is very sad.