Можете написать краткий пересказ текста на английском? In early times there were few specialist builders. People
constructed their homes from whatever material was available where
they lived. The only large buildings were communal ones such as
granaries and places of worship for their gods. In ancient Egypt,Greece, and Rome, large buildings were financed by the rulers of
the country and built by slaves who had been captured in battle.
Stone was used if it was available and where it was not, brick making industry developed.
After the end of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD there
was very little large-scale building done in Europe for about six
hundred years. There were two kinds of buildings other than cottages
and farm buildings: castles and churches. Building a cathedral was
such a vast undertaking that someone was required to organize all
the craftsmen needed for the work. This was usually a master
stonemason.
At the time of the Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries a
new sort of building specialist emerged. He was usually a philosopher or artist, rather than a craftsman, who would get together
a team of building workers and make arrangements to pay them.
This was the beginning of the profession of architecture.
The Industrial Revolution in
the 19th century brought to an
end the craft trad itio n s in
building. Many new functional
buildings were put up in the big
towns that were developing —
buildings that were not planned
to be beautiful but were there to
Building construction for house machinery and the workers
several apartment blocks who operated it. They had to be
built quickly and cheaply. The
building materials were brought across the country on the new canals
and railways that were quickly constructed to get the raw materials
for industry and the finished products to the places where they were
needed.
When the railways were built, tunnels were dug, and bridges,
aqueducts, and roads were built. New materials such as steel were
introduced and engineers were trained to use them. Advances in
science meant that building designers could calculate in advance how a building should be constructed to ensure that it would stand
up, instead of relying on a system of trial and error, for it sometimes
happened that a building would collapse while it was being built.
It was important to calculate accurately the cost of materials and
labour, and there came to be so much competition for doing the
work that a system of tendering developed. Different contractors
would calculate what it would cost to complete a project and then
the lowest estimate would be chosen. The quantity surveyor emerged
in the late 19th century as a professional specialist in building
finance, who could accurately predict the cost of a project.
In the late 19th century, all kinds of new technological
developments affected the building industry. The emergence of the
skyscraper in Chicago, United States, was made possible not only
by the use of steel framing in the structure, but also by the invention
of the elevator, the telephone, and air conditioning.
The present state of building construction is complex. There is
a wide range of building products and systems which are aimed
primarily at groups of building types or markets. The design process
for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research
establishments that study material properties and performance, code
officials who adopt and enforce safely standards, and design
professionals who determine user needs and design a building to
meet those needs. The construction process is also highly organized;
it includes the manufacturers of building products and systems, the
craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the contractors
who employ and coordinate the work of the craftsmen, and
consultants who specialize in such aspects as construction
management, quality control, and insurance.
2.Does He always ring his secretary or his father early in the morning ?
3.Does He always ring his secretary early in the morning ?
4.Who always rings his secretary early in the morning?
5.When does he ring his secretary?Whom does he always ring early in the morning ?
слушать - listen -listened-listened
сидеть- sit -sat -sat
показывать-show - showed -showed
говорить- say-said-said
to rise-rose-risen
, to stand- stood -stood
, to catch- caught -caught
, to give-gave -given